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WHO INVENTED COPMUTER

The History of Computers

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"Who invented the computer?" is not a question with a simple answer. The real answer is that many inventors contributed to the history of computers and that a computer is a complex piece of machinery made up of many parts, each of which can be considered a separate invention.

This series covers many of the major milestones in computer history (but not all of them) with a concentration on the history of personal home computers.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER'S

Inventors of the Modern Computer
The First Freely Programmable Computer invented by Konrad Zuse
	Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer -1936 Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) was a construction engineer for the Henschel Aircraft Company in Berlin, Germany at the beginning of WWII. Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of "inventor of the modern computer" for his series of automatic calculators, which he invented to help him with his lengthy engineering calculations. Zuse has modestly dismissed the title while praising many of the inventions of his contemporaries and successors as being equally if not more important than his own. One of the most difficult aspects of doing a large calculation with either a slide rule or a mechanical adding machine is keeping track of all intermediate results and using them, in their proper place, in later steps of the calculation. Konrad Zuse wanted to overcome that difficulty. He realized that an automatic-calculator device would require three basic elements: a control, a memory, and a calculator for the arithmetic. Konrad Zuse's Z1 Circa 1938 In 1936, Zuse made a mechanical calculator called the Z1, the first binary computer. Zuse used it to explore several groundbreaking technologies in calculator development: floating-point arithmetic, high-capacity memory and modules or relays operating on the yes/no principle. Zuse's ideas, not fully implemented in the Z1, succeeded more with each Z prototype. In 1939, Zuse completed the Z2, the first fully functioning electro-mechanical computer. Konrad Zuse completed the Z3 in 1941, with recycled materials donated by fellow university staff and students. This was the world's first electronic, fully programmable digital computer based on a binary floating-point number and switching system. Zuse used old movie film to store his programs and data for the Z3, instead of using paper tape or punched cards. Paper was in short supply in Germany during the war. According to "The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse" (by Horst Zuse) In 1941, the Z3 contained almost all of the features of a modern computer as defined by John von Neumann and his colleagues in 1946. The only exception was the ability to store the program in the memory together with the data. Konrad Zuse did not implement this feature in the Z3, because his 64-word memory was too small to support this mode of operation. Due to the fact that he wanted to calculate thousands of instructions in a meaningful order, he only used the memory to store values or numbers. The block structure of the Z3 is very similar to a modern computer. The Z3 consisted of separate units, such as a punch tape reader, control unit, floating-point arithmetic unit, and input/output devices. Konrad Zuse wrote the first algorithmic programming language called 'Plankalkül' in 1946, which he used to program his computers. He wrote the world's first chess-playing program using Plankalkül. The Plankalkül language included arrays and records and used a style of assignment (storing the value of an expression in a variable) in which the new value appears in the right column. An array is a collection of identically typed data items distinguished by their indices (or "subscripts"), for example written something like A[i,j,k], where A is the array name and i, j and k are the indices. Arrays are best when accessed in an unpredictable order. This is in contrast to lists, which are best when accessed sequentially. Zuse was unable to convince the Nazi government to support his work for a computer based on electronic valves. The Germans thought they were close to winning the War and felt no need to support further research. The Z1 through Z3 models were destroyed during the war along with Zuse Apparatebau, the first computer company that Zuse formed in 1940. Zuse left for Zurich to finish his work on the Z4, smuggling the Z4 from Germany in a military truck, which he hid in stables on route to Zurich, Switzerland. He completed and installed the Z4 in the Applied Mathematics Division of Zurich's Federal Polytechnical Institute, in use there until 1955. The Z4 had a mechanical memory with a capacity of 1,024 words and several card readers. Zuse no longer had to use movie film to store programs; he could now use punched cards. The Z4 had punches and various facilities to enable flexible programming including address translation and conditional branching. In 1949, he moved back to Germany to form a second company called Zuse KG for the construction and marketing of his designs. Zuse later rebuilt models of the Z3 in 1960 and the Z1 in 1984. John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry -1942 ABC Computer
	The Atanasoff-Berry Computer the First Electronic Computer - John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry "I have always taken the position that there is enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer" - John Atanasoff to reporters. Professor John Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry built the world's first electronic-digital computer at Iowa State University between 1939 and 1942. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer represented several innovations in computing, including a binary system of arithmetic, parallel processing, regenerative memory, and a separation of memory and computing functions. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to patent a digital computing device, the ENIAC computer. A patent infringement case (Sperry Rand Vs. Honeywell, 1973) voided the ENIAC patent as a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention. Atanasoff was quite generous in stating, "there is enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer." Eckert and Mauchly received most of the credit for inventing the first electronic-digital comput er. Historians now say that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was the first. "It was at an evening of scotch and 100 mph car rides," John Atanasoff told reporters, "when the concept came, for an electronically operated machine, that would use base-two (binary) numbers instead of the traditional base-10 numbers, condensers for memory, and a regenerative process to preclude loss of memory from electrical failure.” John Atanasoff wrote most of the concepts of the first modern computer on the back of a cocktail napkin. He was very fond of fast cars and scotch. Atanasoff-Berry Computer In late 1939, John Atanasoff teamed up with Clifford Berry to build a prototype. They created the first computing machine to use electricity, vacuum tubes, binary numbers and capacitors. The capacitors were in a rotating drum that held the electrical charge for the memory. The brilliant and inventive Berry, with his background in electronics and mechanical construction skills, was the ideal partner for Atanasoff. The prototype won the team a grant of $850 to build a full-scale model. They spent the next two years further improving the Atanasoff-Berry Computer. The final product was the size of a desk, weighed 700 pounds, had over 300 vacuum tubes, and contained a mile of wire. It could calculate about one operation every 15 seconds, today a computer can calculate 150 billion operations in 15 seconds. Too large to go anywhere, it remained in the basement of the physics department. The war effort prevented John Atanasoff from finishing the patent process and doing any further work on the computer. When they needed storage space in the physics building, they dismantled the Atanasoff-Berry Computer. Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper -1944 Harvard Mark I Computer The Harvard MARK I Computer - Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper

Harvard Mark 1 Computer

Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper designed the MARK series of computers at Harvard University. The MARK series of computers began with the Mark I in 1944. Imagine a giant roomful of noisy, clicking metal parts, 55 feet long and 8 feet high. The 5-ton device contained almost 760,000 separate pieces. Used by the US Navy for gunnery and ballistic calculations, the Mark I was in operation until 1959.

The computer, controlled by pre-punched paper tape, could carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and reference to previous results. It had special subroutines for logarithms and trigonometric functions and used 23 decimal place numbers. Data was stored and counted mechanically using 3000 decimal storage wheels, 1400 rotary dial switches, and 500 miles of wire. Its electromagnetic relays classified the machine as a relay computer. All output was displayed on an electric typewriter. By today's standards, the Mark I was slow, requiring 3-5 seconds for a multiplication operation.

Howard Aiken

Born: 9 March 1900 in Hoboken, New Jersey, USA

Died: 14 March 1973 in St. Louis, Missouri, USA

• Howard Aiken was an electrical engineer and physicist who first conceived of an electro-mechanical device like the Mark I in 1937. After completing his doctorate at Harvard in 1939, Aiken stayed on to continue the computer's development. IBM funded his research. Aiken headed a team of three engineers including Grace Hopper.

• The Mark I reached completion in 1944.
• In 1947, Howard Aiken completed the Mark II, an electronic computer. The same year he founded the Harvard Computation Laboratory.
• He later published numerous articles on electronics and switching theory and started Aiken Industries.
• Howard Aiken loved computers, but even he had no idea of their eventual widespread appeal. "Only six electronic digital computers would be required to satisfy the computing needs of the entire United States," he said in 1947.

Grace Hopper

Born: 9 Dec 1906 in New York, USA

Died: 1 Jan 1992 in Arlington, Virginia, USA

• Grace Hopper studied at Vassar College and Yale and then joined the Naval Reserve in 1943. In 1944, she started working with Aiken on the Harvard Mark I computer.

• Grace Hopper is responsible for the term 'bug' for a computer fault. The original 'bug' was a moth, which caused a hardware fault in the Mark I. Hopper was the first person to 'debug' a computer.
• In 1949, Grace Hopper started research for the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation where she designed an improved compiler and was part of the team which developed Flow-Matic, the first English-language data processing compiler.
• She invented the language APT and verified the language COBOL.
• Grace Hopper was the first computer science "Man of the Year" in 1969.
• In 1991, Grace Hopper received the National Medal of Technology.

Apple Macintosh Computer-1984
The Invention of the Apple Macintosh - Apple Computers - Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak

Apple Macintosh




Hello, I am Macintosh. Never trust a computer you cannot lift... I'm glad to be out of that bag" - talking Macintosh Computer.

In December, 1983, Apple Computers ran its' famous "1984" Macintosh television commercial, on a small unknown station solely to make the commercial eligible for awards during 1984. The commercial cost 1.5 million and only ran once in 1983, but news and talk shows everywhere replayed it, making TV history. The next month, Apple Computer ran the same ad during the NFL Super Bowl, and millions of viewers saw their first glimpse of the Macintosh computer. The commercial was directed by Ridley Scott, and the Orwellian scene depicted the IBM world being destroyed by a new machine, the "Macintosh".

Could we expect anything less from a company that was now being run by the former president of Pepsi-Cola. Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple Computers had been trying to hire Pepsi's John Sculley since early 1983. In April of that year he succeeded. But Steve and John discovered that they did not get along and one of John Sculley's first actions as CEO of Apple was to boot Steve Jobs off the Apple "Lisa" project, the "Lisa" was the first consumer computer with a graphical user interface or GUI. Jobs then switched over to managing the Apple "Macintosh" project begun by Jeff Raskin. Jobs was determined that the new "Macintosh" was going to have a graphical user interface, like the "Lisa" but at a considerably lower cost.

Note: The early Mac team members (1979) consisted of Jeff Raskin, Brian Howard, Marc LeBrun, Burrell Smith. Joanna Hoffman and Bud Tribble. Others began working working on the Mac at later dates.

Specifications	Macintosh 128K
CPU:	MC68000
CPU speed:	8 Mhz
FPU:	None
RAM:	128k Dram not expandable
ROM:	64k
Serial Ports:	2
Floppy:	1 3.5" 400k
Monitor:	9" 512x384 square pixels built-in B/W
Power:	60 Watts
Weight:	16.5 lbs.
Dimensions:	13.6" H x 9.6" W x 10.9" D
System Software:	Mac OS 1.0
Production:	January 1984 to October 1985
Cost:	$2,495

Seventy-four days after the introduction of the "Macintosh", 50,000 units had been sold, not that strong a show. Apple refused to license the OS or the hardware, the 128k memory was not enough and a single floppy was difficult to use. The "Macintosh" had "Lisa's" user friendly GUI, but initially missed some of the more powerful features of the "Lisa" like multitasking and the 1 MB of memory. Jobs compensated by making sure developers created software for the new "Macintosh", Jobs figured that software was the way to win the consumer over.

In 1985, the "Macintosh" computer line received a big sales boost with the introduction of the LaserWriter printer and Aldus PageMaker, home desktop publishing was now possible. But 1985 was also the year when the original founders of Apple left the company.

Steve Wozniak returned to college and Steve Jobs was fired, his difficulties with John Sculley coming to a head. Jobs had decided, to regain control of the company away from Sculley, he scheduled a business meeting in China for Sculley and planned for a corporate take-over, when Sculley would be absent. Information about Jobs' true motives, reached Sculley before the China trip, he confronted Jobs and asked Apple's Board of Directors to vote on the issue. Cveryone voted for Sculley and Jobs quit, in lieu of being fired. Jobs later rejoined Apple in 1996 and has happily worked there ever since. Sculley was eventually replaced as CEO of Apple.

And then, there was "Windows"

Alan Shugart &IBM -1971

The "Floppy" Disk

The Invention of the Floppy Disk Drive - Alan Shugart

In 1971, IBM introduced the first "memory disk", as it was called then, or the "floppy disk" as it is known today. The first floppy was an 8" plastic disk coated with magnetic iron oxide; data was written to and read from the disk's surface. The nickname "floppy" came from its flexibility. The floppy disk was considered a revolutionary device at the time for it's portability which provided a new and easy physical means of transporting data from computer to computer.

The "floppy" was invented by IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart. The first disks were designed for loading microcodes into the controller of the Merlin (IBM 3330) disk pack file (a 100 MB storage device). So, in effect, the first floppies were used to fill another type of data storage device. Overnight, additional uses for the floppy were discovered, making it the "new" program and file storage medium.

How does a floppy work? It is a circle of magnetic material similar to any kind of recording tape; one or two sides of the disk are used for recording. The disk drive grabs the floppy by its center and spins it like a record inside its housing. The read/write head, much like the head on a tape deck, contacts the surface through an opening in the plastic shell, or envelope. The Shugart floppy held 100 KBs of data.

In 1976, the 5 1/4" flexible disk drive and diskette was developed by Alan Shugart for Wang Laboratories. Wang had wanted a smaller floppy disk and drive to use with their desktop computers. By 1978, more than 10 manufacturers were producing 5 1/4" floppy drives.

In 1981, Sony introduced the first 3 1/2" floppy drives and diskettes. This is the floppy familiar to today's computer user.

The following first hand information was provided by Richard Mateosian who developed a floppy disk operating system for the first "floppies".

The disks were 8 inches in diameter and had a capacity of 200K, I think. Since they were so large (!) we divided them into four partitions, each of which we regarded as a separate hardware device -- analogous to a cassette drive (our other main peripheral storage device). We used floppy disks and cassettes mostly as paper tape replacements, but we also appreciated and exploited the random access nature of disks.

Our operating system had a set of logical devices (source input, listing output, error output, binary output, etc.) and a mechanism for establishing a correspondence between these and the hardware devices. Our applications programs were versions of HP assemblers, compilers, and so forth, modified (by us, with HP's blessing) to use our logical devices for their I/O functions.

The rest of the operating system was basically a command monitor. The commands had mainly to do with file manipulation. There were some conditional commands (like IF DISK) for use in batch files. The entire operating system and all of the application programs were in HP 2100 series assembly language.

The underlying system software, which we wrote from scratch, was interrupt driven, so we could support simultaneous I/O operations, such as keying in commands while the printer was running or typing ahead of the 10 character per second teletype. The structure of the software evolved from Gary Hornbuckle's 1968 paper, a Multiprocessing Monitor for Small Machines, and from PDP8-based systems, I worked on at Berkeley Scientific Laboratories (BSL) in the late 1960s. The work at BSL was largely inspired by the late Rudolph Langer, who improved significantly on Hornbuckle's model. - Richard Mateosian Review Editor, IEEE Micro Berkeley, CA

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